Why is the Buddha smiling? Because it’s finally happened: meditation is  mainstream.            

 Of course, the true “Buddha mind” finds reason to smile from within and is said to be unfazed by such spacetime frivolities as cultural trends, but surely the “enlightened” among us, whoever they are, must be encouraged that meditative practices are being taken up in boardrooms of corporate America, taught at YMCAs, introduced to schoolchildren around the world and even advocated within the military.

Mindfulness, Zen, the Transcendental Meditation technique and many other practices have become household words. Hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific research studies have demonstrated the efficacy of meditation for improving health, preventing disease, accelerating personal growth and even reversal of aging.

But with so many different methods of meditation available, how does one choose a suitable, effective meditation technique for oneself or one’s family? Here are some timesaving tips from a longtime meditator and 35-year meditation teacher to help you evaluate which meditation might be best for you.

 Meditation techniques are not all the same!

The first step is to recognize that not all meditation techniques are the same. The various meditation practices engage the mind in different ways. Vipassna, also commonly (and perhaps loosely) known as mindfulness meditation, emphasizes dispassionate observation and, in its more philosophical form, the contemplation of impermanence, sometimes focusing on the interconnection between mind and body. Zen Buddhist practices are likely to use concentration, whether directed at one’s breath or at trying to grasp a Zen koan. The Transcendental Meditation technique uses effortless attention to experience subtle states of thought and ‘transcend’ by use of a specialized mantra. Christian Centering Prayer uses a word of worship to stimulate receptiveness to God. And this is only a small sampling of the variety of practices commonly lumped together as ‘meditation.’

Different techniques have different aims, employ a variety of procedures and naturally produce different results. In determining which technique among this wide variety of practices might best suit your purposes, start by asking yourself what you want out of meditation, and how much time you’re willing to give it. Some meditation programs emphasize regular or twice-daily practice over time to gain maximum benefit and evolve to higher stages of personal growth, while other practices are intended for an occasional inspirational boost or to chill when you’re stressed.

Another question to ask yourself: do you want a meditation practice that comes with a religion, philosophy or way of life? Many practices, such as Buddhist and Taoist practices, are interwoven into a conceptual world view that’s an intricate part of the practice—whether it’s an approach that contemplates the cosmos and human mind as inseparable elements of a single order, or a world view that strives to get beyond all dogma and see the world as it truly is, it’s still another mentally conceived world view. Other practices, such as the form of mindfulness meditation now popular in the West, or the Transcendental Meditation technique, are secular in nature and can be practiced without embracing any particular philosophy, religion or way of life.

Are you seeking to achieve inspiration and insights during the meditation experience? Meditations that fall into this category are contemplative techniques. They promise greater depth of understanding about the topic being contemplated and help the intellect fathom various avenues of thought. These types of meditations can be pleasant and emotionally uplifting, especially if there is no straining or mind control involved. Often these practices are performed with the guidance of a CD, instructor or derived from a book.

A scientific approach:

Are you looking for a certain health benefit, such as decreased anxiety or lower blood pressure? Though proponents of most meditation practices claim health benefits, frequently these claims of benefit cite scientific research that was actually conducted on other forms of meditation, and not on the practice being promoted. Yet research has clearly shown that not all meditations give the same results.[1] If you’re choosing a meditation for a specific health benefit, check the research being used and verify that a particular benefit was actually done on that specific meditation technique and not on some other practice. While you are looking into the research, be sure the study was peer-reviewed and published in a reputable scientific or academic journal. If a study showing a specific benefit—such as deep relaxation or reduced anxiety—was replicated by several other research studies on that same practice, then the science is more compelling. 

When it comes to reducing stress and anxiety, scientists have again found that all meditation practices are not equally effective. Practices that employ concentration have been found to actually increase anxiety, and the same meta-study found that most meditation techniques are no more effective than a placebo at reducing anxiety.[2]

Need meditation to lower your blood pressure? The Transcendental Meditation technique is the only mind/body practice that has been shown both in independent clinical trials and meta-analyses to significantly lower high blood pressure in hypertensive patients.[3] To determine if a particular form of meditation has scientific evidence supporting a specific benefit, you can do a search at PubMed or through Google’s academic search engine, Google Scholar. There are over a thousand peer-reviewed studies on the various forms of meditation, with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mindfulness meditation being the most extensively researched practices, respectively.

How much time do you have?

Another consideration is how much time it takes to master a particular meditation technique. Some meditation practices require many years to master and to achieve their stated purpose—or even get a glimpse of the goal—while other practices may take only a few months or even a few minutes to produce intended results. For example, relaxation CDs can have an immediate, soothing effect—it may not be nirvana, but in some cases relaxation is all that’s promised. If you don’t have the patience to persist in a practice that takes many years to attain success, it makes sense to choose a technique that requires less or no effort. 

Along these lines, does the meditation practice you’re considering require the ability to concentrate? If you have a hard time focusing for prolonged periods, or suffer from ADHD, you may find it frustrating to attempt a concentration type of meditation. Remember, scientific findings actually indicate that concentration techniques, though they may improve focus in some cases, can actually increase stress and anxiety.[4]

Meditation and the brain:

Want to meditate to enhance brain functioning? There are several types of meditation CDs marketed on the Internet as “scientific technologies” for improving your brain. If you look past the marketing slogans (“Meditate deep as a Zen monk—instantly!”) to see if there are any peer-reviewed scientific research studies verifying such claims, don’t be surprised if you don’t find any. This doesn’t mean the CDs will not improve your brain—perhaps they will—but I hesitate to recommend such unproven methods, especially if they feign to be scientific when they are not. 

Speaking of meditating deep as a Zen monk, brain researchers have reported EEG alpha coherence in the frontal brain area during Zen meditation—as well as during the Transcendental Meditation technique (which shows EEG coherence throughout the entire brain). Neuroscientists theorize this to be a positive effect, because the prefrontal cortex (PFC) “oversees” the whole
brain, and having a more coherently functioning PFC should improve overall brain performance. Thus there’s evidence from neuroscience that certain meditation practices may be good for your brain. If the barrage of meditation CDs on the market that claim improved brain functioning were to show such prefrontal EEG alpha coherence, that might lend some credibility to their promises of improved brain function. Advances in neuroscience in recent years, and an influx of new scientific data on brain patterns during meditation, may soon expose claims of brain enhancement as true or false, based on what’s happening in the brain during meditation. 

Meditate for Relaxation:

If it’s relaxation you want, research shows that the body’s relaxation response can be induced in many ways—even by just sitting with your eyes closed and listening to soothing music. Because of the intimate connection between mind and body, the deeper you go in meditation and the more settled your mind becomes, the deeper is the state of rest for the body. Contemplation practices—one of the major categories of meditation techniques—like concentration practices, have their own particular and distinct effects on mind and body. Because contemplation and concentration practices keep the mind busy—engaged in a particular activity or mental task—they are not most conducive to the mind’s settling inward, and thus will not bring the deepest rest and rejuvenation to the body. Some methods, such as the Relaxation Response, Christian Centering Prayer, or relaxation CDs often employ a mixture of both contemplation and concentration, depending on how one approaches the practice. Beware: there’s no evidence that contemplation or concentration practices such as these will actually lower high blood pressure or significantly reduce anxiety. Easy listening meditation CDs that don’t require much active engagement on the part of the mind—especially ones that do not use guided voice instructions that keep the mind engaged in the realm of meaning and contemplation—may be your best bet if you want some mild relaxation and a little emotional upliftment.

I say “mild relaxation” because meta-studies of all available research on levels of rest during mind-body practices shows that most meditation practices, including the Relaxation Response technique, do not provide physiological relaxation any deeper than simple eyes-closed rest.[6]

If you want really deep relaxation, you need a meditation practice that takes you to the deepest, most transcendental level of your Self.

Secular or non-secular:

Certain meditation practices may conflict with your religion or beliefs. The practice of meditation, though found in almost every religion, has been predominantly associated with traditions of the East. Some of these practices require adherence to beliefs of Eastern philosophy, while others are merely mechanical practices (like watching your breath) extracted from those cultures and applicable to anyone. Granted, the East has much to offer the West—and vice versa—and most people find it possible to incorporate an Eastern-derived meditation practice from an age-old tradition without sacrificing their own personal belief system.

I could never sit like that!

A practical consideration: do you need to sit in a prescribed position to do a particular meditation practice? The popular image of a meditator in leotards sitting cross-legged in full lotus position may have you thinking, “I could never do that.” Don’t be discouraged. Even if you are unable to sit like a pretzel or for an extended period without back support, there are meditation practices that do not require any particular position and are best practiced in your most comfortable easy chair. Some forms of Zen and mindfulness are even practiced while walking!

Selecting a teacher:

Do you need a meditation instructor or guru? That may depend on the depth—or height—to which you aspire. The higher meditative states are not so readily achieved by instruction techniques learned from a book or CD. The very act of reading and self-instructing can interfere with your innocence and ability to get beyond the active, surface levels of the mind. This requirement for innocence during meditation is beautifully underscored in the classic little book entitled, “Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind,” by Shunryu Suzuki. It can be a challenge to be innocent when you’re simultaneously playing the roles of expert teacher and diligent student.

And then the question arises: how do I know I’m doing it right? Without the expert guidance of an experienced teacher, howcan you know? In the great traditions of enlightenment, such as Buddhism, Taoism and the Vedic tradition, meditation was learned from sages who passed it on only to students who preformed sufficient austerities and showed receptivity and aptitude for learning. The act of “initiation” was considered sacred and the student showed great reverence for the teaching. Kings would give half their kingdoms or more to charity, just to earn the honor of studying with a master teacher of meditation—hoping thereby to gain liberation or enlightenment, full awakening to the true nature of life. Such was the regard for meditation in ancient times. These days, though many people may profess to be meditation teachers, they may not have the expertise you are looking for if you are serious about practicing meditation and committed to gaining higher consciousness and enlightenment. Check the teacher’s credentials and degree of training. Does the instructor represent a venerated tradition of meditation? Is the teacher upholding the purity and effectiveness of tested and proven procedures? Is the teacher directly connected to the lineage of a great, enlightened master who passed on to them the correct instructions for effective practice? 

How much should I pay?

Some people claim that because meditation is a spiritual practice, it should be given out for free, and in many cases it is. You can pick up a meditative technique as part of many yoga classes, from a library book or a friend’s CD. But many meditation courses require a course fee. Some teachers charging for meditation offer a structured course that includes follow-up and personal support—thus there is overhead and educational expenses. Remember the wise adage: you get what you pay for. If you are looking for regularly scheduled group meetings at a meditation center and ongoing follow-up, you may need to pay for that amenity. There is nothing unspiritual about paying for a service that directly benefits your health and wellbeing. In the West, where materialism dominates, it is new to think of paying for something we cannot hold in our hands. If you find cost a stumbling block to learning meditation, look at the cost effectiveness of the practice and what it will bring in terms of healthcare savings and increased efficiency and quality of life. And look into what the organization does with the money; the organization may be a legitimate non-profit supporting a humanitarian cause that you agree with, such as promoting world peace.

Deliberate—and Jump within!

The bottom line: assess your personal needs and strength of intention to incorporate meditation into your life. Be realistic about your abilities and the requirements of the practice. Do your homework—most meditation programs have a Website. And if you know someone practicing a type of meditation that interests you, ask for a personal testimonial. Evaluate the claims and the scientific proof behind those claims if there is any. Check the track record of the teacher and the organization. Then join the millions who are turning within to change themselves and the world.

 1.     Orme-Johnson, D.W., and Walton, K. (1998), “All approaches to Prevention are not the Same,” American Journal of Health Promotion, May/June, [5]: 297-298.

2.     Ibid

3.     Rainforth M, Schneider R, Nidich S, et al: Stress Reduction Programs i
n Patients with Elevated Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Current Hypertension Reports [9] 520-528, 2007

4.     Eppley, Abrams, & Shear, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 957-974, 1989.

5.     International Journal of Neuroscience 14: 147–151, 1981; Psychosomatic Medicine  46: 267–276, 1984; International Journal of Neuroscience 46: 77–86, 1989; International Journal of Neuroscience 13: 211–217, 1981; 15: 151–157, 1981; Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1: 208–212, 1977; Volume 4: 2245–2266, 1989.

6.     Eppley, Abrams, & Shear, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 957-974, 1989.

Carl Jung discovered the unique method of dream interpretation. I continued his research, discovered the meaning of more dream symbols and the existence of a wild and primitive conscience that causes craziness to our conscience.

If you learn how to interpret your dreams by using this scientific method, you will be able to penetrate the hidden world of the unconscious and anti-conscience, in addition to understanding how your human conscience works. What does this mean? This means that you will penetrate your mind and start understanding why you behave the way you do, why you think and feel the way you do and so on.

You will then start understanding your mistakes and to correct them and develop your conscience. This means that you become more intelligent because you start paying attention to other psychological functions that you have at your disposition. You can learn many things and better judge the world: these are the functions you never use because you are always dominated by only one fully developed psychological function, which you prefer, and another one that is only partially developed and only partly helps you.

In the beginning, your dreams will help you develop you conscience by showing you all the aspects of reality that you have to consider when you make your decisions or judge someone. For example, if you belong to a psychological type that is extroverted and based on sensations, you will care only for the way you feel, the food you eat, the clothes you wear and all the material pleasures you can have.

What can happen to you? A lot!

If you don’t think logically or analyze your life seriously, you’ll surely face many problems in your life. On the other hand, if you don’t pay attention to your feelings but only care for the gratification of your senses, you may get involved with someone you don’t really love but who can give you the material pleasure you desire…only to discover later that you cannot live with that person no matter how much money they may have.

If you don’t pay attention to what you “can guess” about each person, to the impression and the feeling they give you, you are ignoring a very important psychological function whose functionalism is a mystery—intuition. This psychological function is in fact the ability to predict the future without any logical explanation besides the impressions that you obtain about someone or something. This psychological function when completely developed can help you actually guess, for instance, the person who will buy your products and who will never do that. You can understand from the beginning who is the right person for you and immediately decide the next actions to take.

When this psychological function is not well developed, you receive no help in your decisions. You cannot guess anything about what you are trying to examine.

Therefore, when you completely develop your conscience through dream interpretation, you start discovering the hidden meaning of reality that you could not see before because you were too ignorant and based on only one entire and one partial psychological function each.

On the other hand, when you completely develop your conscience and eliminate the dangerous influence of the wild and primitive anti-conscience, you discover how reality is prepared and how you can transform it according to what will bring you good results.

You acquire a “third eye” that can read and decipher the symbols existent not only in dreams but also everywhere else, and you will be guided to solve all the problems of your life.

When you reach this level, you will learn the meaning of many other things that you now ignore. You will learn how to think according to another system of logic that is completely different from the selfish logic that you use now, in addition to understanding the meaning of life and death.

You can learn all that you wish by interpreting your dreams, and you can interpret everything that happens to you in your daily life just as you interpret dreams, and thus have more information about reality, other people and the future.

INDIAN JOURNAL OF GERONTOLOGY, VOL.20, No.4, 2006, p:405-416.

INTRODUCTION

Electronic technology is changing our life-style to a great extent. Prevalence and excessive use of electronic products found among people, cutting across cultural differences, have set in a trend for e-culture. Electronic-culture is new. It is emerging as a transnational and global phenomenon; not confined to geographical boundaries. Internet, especially, is expected to bring in sweeping and lasting cultural transformations. For instance, terms like e-commerce, e-business, e-banking, e-mails, e-organizations, e-governance, e-journals, e-books, e-medicine, internet, web-shopping, etc have become part of the current lexicon.

The advances and breakthroughs made in the fields of information and communication technology (ICT) and electronics during the present and previous centuries have resulted in the emergence of e-culture. Though the ICT revolution started in the near past its progress towards networking is achieved only recently through the impetus provided by the Internet (Uzelac, 2003). According to Mercer (2003) it is the ICT-availability and access to Internet that provides scope for production of e-culture. However, today the emergence of e-culture is taken for granted due to prevalence of the interactive digital applications of the ICT such as Internet and mobile technologies (Mitchell, 2003).

Van Dijk (2001) identified four different types of access to ICT as conditions for the emergence of e-culture, namely, motivation, possession, use and skills. Motivation concerns psychical access to ICT: the interest in it, the will to use it and the lack of fear of new technology. Possession means, in this context, the availability of equipment and an Internet connection at home or at work, school or university. The third component of access is the actual use that people make of available possibilities. The use depends in part on the fourth form of access, namely the possession of digital skills (De Haan & Huysmans, 2002).

E-culture though prevalent widely, is a recent phenomenon. The scientist community has not explored much of it now. De Haan and Huysmans (2002) cautions that the exploration of e-culture may only be the start of a long-term process of change taking place at a global level. Research on e-culture presently is at a rudimentary level and so is its concept. Scholars in this field have tried to define e-culture in various ways, but all being far from conclusive.

E-culture is increasingly perceived as a new digital media culture or digitalization of culture. Netherlands council for culture (2004) argues that, within the context of the ‘digitizing society,’ e-culture should be seen as the integration of ICT into the primary processes of productivity, distribution, presentation, preservation and (re)utilization of cultural expression. According to the view of De Haan and Huysmans (2002) the term ‘e-culture’ is stated to refer to the diffusion of new technology, its application for various avenues such as information and communication in addition to shifts effected in related attitudes, values and norms. Patel and Rajendran (2005) have defined “electronic culture” as “increased use of electronic goods by individuals in various areas like home, office, public places and those they carry personally with them, to fulfill their psycho-social needs.”

E-culture is both technological and a social development. There is a widespread consensus that new digital and networking technologies like the World Wide Web (WWW) and the Internet have the capacity to reorder the domains of everyday social and personal life (Dona Kolar-Panov, 2003). Cultural habits and participation in cultural life are changing as a corollary of e-culture. Hence, it would be pertinent here to consider briefly the concept and importance of culture in the light of a psychological focus leading to the study on the impact of e-culture.

According to Brislin (2000) one of the major assumptions of cross-cultural social psychology is that culture shapes human behavior. Numerous advanced theories of social behavior indicate that cultural factors play significant role in the determination of behavior, shaping values, self, and motivation of individuals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Lehman et al (2004) point out that culture and psychological processes influence one another and a dynamic interplay exists between them.

Culture aims to ensure a harmonious relationship between humans and their environments. Psychological well-being remains the main focus of cultural norms and practices. Myers and Diener (1995) refer to life-satisfaction as one of the three key aspects of psychological well-being, the others being positive and negative affect. Life satisfaction stands together with the affective elements to yield a relatively comprehensive picture of psychological well-being (Diener et al., 1999). Chirkov et al (2005) found ‘culture-fit’ is positively associated with life satisfaction. Adjustment to cultural demands is essential for psychological well-being and life-satisfaction. But cultures are diverse and dynamic social systems and not static monoliths (Bandura, 2002). Cultural changes are inevitable and tend to create new demands which the elderly may find difficult to fulfill. Now the dawning of e-culture emphasizes the acquiring of digital skills and demands shifts in related attitudes, values and norms. Access and usage of electronic technology will be an important determinant of life-satisfaction in this era of e-culture.

Culture also emphasize the importance of group living because from an evolutionary perspective, solitude (loneliness) is dangerous; mutually supportive collective behaviour is beneficial, both for survival and sexual reproduction. Thus, it makes sense to assume that humans have an evolved tendency toward the establishment of shared beliefs, behaviours, and normative structures that help hold social collectives together (Campbell, 1982). Loneliness is popularly viewed as a relative deficit in social relationship with others in the environment. Russell, Peplau, and Cutrona (1980) defined loneliness “as the relational deficit reflecting interpersonal and social relationships that the individual evaluates as quantitatively inadequate or too few in numbers.” It has been conceived as a problem for everyone from children to elderly, however, elderly experience more loneliness because their spouses might be deceased, their friends might have either moved away or died, their children might be in distant places/ cities or on account of physical disabilities (Peplau et al, 1982). Mullins and Mushel (1992) indicated that the elderly people desired to be part of a social network and also prefer the existence of a set of friends but not emotional commitment to a set of friends. They also pointed out that the inability to be part of a social network and lack of friends in old age results in the experience of loneliness. The rapid spread of e-culture enabling easy access to information and facilitating communication with others may help elderly reduce loneliness. Especially, the Internet provides people access to a complete new space and society known as ‘cyber society’. Anybody who enters this virtual world can expect an almost infinite number of possibilities to retrieve information, engage in social interactions and build up lasting relations. There, with the exception of the physical body, the individual can encounter almost everything which can also be found in “real society”: such as membership, role playing, emotions, work, commodities, discussions, etc. Like the conventional reality the cyber experience can also form identity (Jones, 1997). Hence the Internet is considered as an identity-based technology (Langer, 2003).But the onset of electronic culture also poses new demands which the elderly must cope with; failing may result in the experience of loneliness.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Reviews done indicate that studies o
n e-culture are fragmented and inadequate. Scanty information is available about the influence of e-culture, both at international and national levels. The scientist community has just begun to recognize the importance of e-culture and its influence. At present there are not much substantial empirical evidences available on the impact of e-culture. In India, unfortunately, the research efforts in understanding and investigating the status of e-culture have not yet gained momentum. The research and academic community are dormant regarding the influence of e-culture. Deplorably, many researchers belonging to various disciplines are yet to take up this issue. In particular, from a psychological perspective, e-culture still remains unexplored. India is one of the poorest countries in exposing commercial contents on the global platform using digital media. However, the scope of India’s strength in this direction is immense. The government of India as well as many NGOs stand dedicated and determined to enrich and enhance the e-status of India. Osama Manzar’s (2005) book “The Best E-contents 2005” published by ‘Digital Empowerment Foundation’ (DEF) is an eye-opener regarding the e-contents in India. India is perhaps one of the most uniquely positioned countries in the world.

The present investigation is significant because looking around one finds a number of problems in our society especially related to the elderly. The changing demographic profile of India where there is a rapid increase in the aged population, it is increasingly becoming vulnerable due to the process of urbanization and industrialization (Venkoba Rao, 1992). Chadha and Easwaramoorthy (1993) have critically evaluated the need for a comprehensive study on elderly in India.

Reviews made on psychological well-being indicate that not much is known about age-related changes in life satisfaction, most studies has focused on the role of positive and negative affect. Studies on the impact of cultural changes upon life-satisfaction among the elderly in Indian context appear negligible. Loneliness has become the subject of substantial empirical research only recently. One impetus for the new interest is the realization that loneliness is a serious and widespread problem for millions today (Weiss, 1973). Lakshminarayanan (1993) found that the elderly people feel lonelier than any other population. Research on loneliness among the elderly particularly in Indian context also appears inadequate (Patel, 1998).

Despite, a developing country, its wealth of information, resources, and knowledge capacity puts the country in the list of top 5 countries in the world. India like other nations of the world is no exception to the global process of digitization. India certainly is getting transformed into an e-society, at a faster pace (Osama Manzar, 2005). There are no substantial empirical evidences available regarding the reaction of Indian elderly to the e-cultural phenomenon. Adapting to e-culture demands the acquiring of digital skills (De Haan and Huysmans, 2002). The elderly might find this difficult which may leave them less satisfied with life and also feel lonelier. No studies relating e-culture, loneliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly were also found. Hence this investigation is a pioneering effort made to explore the relationship of e-culture with loneliness and life-satisfaction in Indian context. This investigation will enlighten the academic and research fraternity throwing light on the relationship of e-culture with loneliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly.

METHOD

Sample

The sample for this study comprised of 120 elderly individuals (60 females and 60 males respectively) from Pondicherry (a Union Territory of India). The age range of the samples were between 60 to 73 years (Mean age=64.3 years). Samples were restricted to the educated segment of the elderly population, those with a minimum of a graduate degree and above were only included in this study. Purposive sampling technique was adopted.

Tools used

The research tools used in this study for data collection were the (1) e-culture Inventory, (2) UCLA Loneliness Scale, and (3) Life-Satisfaction Scale, selected after a comprehensive review of related literature.

(1) E-culture inventory

This inventory was developed by Patel and Rajendran (2005) to measure e-culture. It evaluates e-culture based on multiple electronic products people use in different areas such as home, office, public places and those that they carry personally with them. Under each area certain electronic items used by people such as (a) Personal computer, (b) Internet, (c) digital diary, (d) mobile phone, (e) micro-oven, (d) disc-man, (e) Digital cameras, (f) lap-tops, (g) automatic washing machine, (h) DVD players, and frequent visits to (i) computerized shops/ movie halls/ theme parks/ ATMs, etc were stated and verified. The inventory consists of 42 items with 2 responses, i.e., “yes” and “no” respectively for each item. The 42 items are classified into 4 areas, namely, home=16 items, office=11 items, personal=8 items and public=7 items. The score for ‘yes’ in home area is 2, in office is 1, in personal area is 3 and in public area is 1 were as the score for ‘no’ in all the areas is 0. The maximum score possible in this inventory is 74 and the minimum score is 0. High score indicates high e-culture and low score indicates low e-culture. The reliability and validity co-efficient values for this inventory were 0.72 and 0.85 respectively found significant at 0.001 levels.

(2)Revised University of California at Los Angles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale

This scale was developed by Russell et al (1980). It is a 20 item self-report on which respondents express how often their feelings and behaviours reflect perceived isolation and dissatisfaction with social relationships. This scale consists of 10 statements dealing with satisfaction of one’s social relationships and 10 statements dealing with dissatisfaction of one’s social relationships. Respondents indicated how frequently they experience each item on a scale from 1 to 4, corresponding to ‘never,’ ‘rarely,’ ‘sometimes,’ and ‘often’ respectively. Russell et al (1980) determined high internal consistency reliability for the instrument yielding a co-efficient alpha of 0.94. They also found acceptable concurrent validity and discriminant validity. Split-half reliability in Indian context was 0.71 (Jha, 1988).

(3)Life-Satisfaction Scale

This scale was constructed by Campbell et al (1976) to measure life-satisfaction. The scale consists of 7 items based on Likert-type of scaling technique with 5 responses, namely, ‘very happy,’ ‘pretty happy,’ ‘happy,’ ‘not happy,’ and ‘not too happy,’ and the scores range from 1 to 5 respectively. The maximum score possible in this scale is 35 and the minimum score is 7. The test-retest reliability reported for this scale and the validity worked out with Psychological Well-being Scale and with Index of Domain Satisfaction was found to be significant.

Procedure

The samples of this study were personally and individually contacted and data was obtained through face-to face interview. The duration of data collection were spread over a period of two months (60 days). The obtained responses were scored and statistically analyzed.

Table I: Showing the Mean, SD, SEM and t-test for e-culture score of the groups on the basis of gender.

Gender N Mean SD SEM t-value LS

Male 60 34.80 15.46 1.09 1.35 NS

Female 60 32.37 15.96 1.44

Table II: Showing the Pearson’s moment correlation co-efficient for e-culture with

loneliness and life-satisfaction.

Variables r

Loneliness -0.171**

Life-satisfaction 0.154**

** significant at 0.001 levels

*significant at 0.005 levels

Discussion

The main aim of this research study was to explore the relationship of e-culture with lo
neliness and life-satisfaction among the elderly. For this purpose Pearson’s product moment correlation were calculated, since no significant gender differences were found as indicated in Table I the results for both sexes are combined and given in Table II.

It is inferred from the results summarized in Table II that e-culture has a highly significant positive relationship with life-satisfaction but is negatively and significantly related to loneliness.

In this study e-culture has been conceptualized as increased use of electronic products. The outcome of the present research indicates that more use of electronic items by the elderly results in high life-satisfaction. This outcome of the present study can defended by the view that access to electronic technology and use of electronic products by elderly has multiple implications, it connotes that the elderly posses the required digital skills, is active and productive, is mentally and physically healthy, has adequate economic support and is progressive minded. Van Dijk (2001) has already identified four different types of access to information and communication technology (ICT) as conditions for the emergence of e-culture, namely, motivation, possession, use and skills. Hence, the elderly individuals who are high in e-culture may find easy to adjust to the demands of e-environment and thereby experience more life-satisfaction.

The finding of this research that e-culture is inversely related to loneliness among elderly indicates that increased use of electronic products by elderly individuals results in low level of loneliness and vice versa. The rationale for this finding might be that the preoccupation with electronic products especially multi-media technologies by the elderly may make them feel part of a social network or be a replacement for the lack of friends. The information and communication technology (ICT) championed by Internet and mobile technology ensuing in e-culture has made access to information and communication between people simple, effortless and undemanding. Loneliness which is popularly viewed as relative deficit in adequate social relations may be compromised by increased indulgence in electronic technology making contacts and communication easy for the elderly. Further the elderly individuals possessing the motivation and skills to use electronic products may have more perceived control over their environments. Patel (1998) has empirically proved that increased perceived control results in decreased loneliness among the elderly.

CONCLUSION

The present study reveals that e-culture is positively and significantly related to life-satisfaction and loneliness is negatively and significantly related to e-culture among the elderly.

REFERENCE

Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Journal of Applied

Psychology: An International Review. 51. pp. 269-290.

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